Abstract The Ras family of small Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins (G proteins) represents one of the main components of intracellular signal transduction required for normal cardiac growth, but is also critically involved in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. The present review provides an update on the role of the H-, K- and N-Ras genes and their related pathways in cardiac diseases. We focus on cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, where Ras has been studied the most. We also review other cardiac diseases, like genetic disorders related to Ras. The scope of the review extends from fundamental concepts to therapeutic applications. Although the three Ras genes have a nearly identical primary structure, there are important functional differences between them: H-Ras mainly regulates cardiomyocyte size, whereas K-Ras regulates cardiomyocyte proliferation. N-Ras is the least studied in cardiac cells and is less associated to cardiac defects. Clinically, oncogenic H-Ras causes Costello syndrome and facio-cutaneous-skeletal syndromes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias. On the other hand, oncogenic K-Ras and alterations of other genes of the Ras-Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathway, like Raf, cause Noonan syndrome and cardio-facio-cutaneous syndromes characterized by cardiac hypertrophy and septal defects. We further review the modulation by Ras of key signaling pathways in the cardiomyocyte, including: (i) the classical Ras-Raf-MAPK pathway, which leads to a more physiological form of cardiac hypertrophy; as well as other pathways associated with pathological cardiac hypertrophy, like (ii) The SAPK (stress activated protein kinase) pathways p38 and JNK; and (iii) The alternative pathway Raf-Calcineurin-Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells (NFAT). Genetic alterations of Ras isoforms or of genes in the Ras-MAPK pathway result in Ras-opathies, conditions frequently associated with cardiac hypertrophy or septal defects among other cardiac diseases. Several studies underline the potential role of H- and K-Ras as a hinge between physiological and pathological cardiac hypertrophy, and as potential therapeutic targets in cardiac hypertrophy and failure. Highlights - The Ras (Rat Sarcoma) gene family is a group of small G proteins - Ras is regulated by growth factors and neurohormones affecting cardiomyocyte growth and hypertrophy - Ras directly affects cardiomyocyte physiological and pathological hypertrophy - Genetic alterations of Ras and its pathways result in various cardiac phenotypes? - Ras and its pathway are differentially regulated in acquired heart disease - Ras modulation is a promising therapeutic target in various cardiac conditions.

Na ausência de evidência quanto a potenciais efeitos da exposição a nanopartículas sobre a saúde ocupacional, existe necessidade de orientação para os gestores a respeito dos riscos, perigos e dos possíveis controles. A identificação de questões éticas envolvidas é útil, particularmente para empregadores, empregados, investidores e autoridades de saúde, uma vez que o sentido e a meta da segurança ocupacional e de saúde é a prevenção de doenças para os trabalhadores. Essa situação inclui: (a) identificação e comunicação de riscos por cientistas, autoridades e empregadores; (b) aceitação dos riscos por parte dos trabalhadores; (c) seleção e implementação de controles; (d) estabelecimento de programas de detecção precoce; e (e) investimento em toxicologia e pesquisas de vigilância. A questão ética envolve determinação imparcial de riscos, não maleficência, autonomia, justiça, privacidade e promoção do respeito às pessoas. Identificadas e exploradas as questões éticas, várias opções se abrem ao gestor. Adicionalmente, deliberações societais acerca dos riscos no local de trabalho com nanotecnologia podem fundamentar a escolha por pequenos negócios dentro de uma perspectiva global.

In the absence of scientific clarity about the potential health effects of occupational exposure to nanoparticles, a need exists for guidance in decisionmaking about hazards, risks, and controls. An identification of the ethical issues involved may be useful to decision makers, particularly employers, workers, investors, and health authorities. Because the goal of occupational safety and health is the prevention of disease in workers, the situations that have ethical implications that most affect workers have been identified. These situations include the a) identification and communication of hazards and risks by scientists, authorities, and employers; b) workers' acceptance of risk; c) selection and implementation of controls; d) establishment of medical screening programs; and e) investment in toxicologic and control research. The ethical issues involve the unbiased determination of hazards and risks, nonmaleficence (doing no harm), autonomy, justice, privacy, and promoting respect for persons. As the ethical issues are identified and explored, options for decision makers can be developed. Additionally, societal deliberations about workplace risks of nanotechnologies may be enhanced by special emphasis on small businesses and adoption of a global perspective.

Na ausência de evidência quanto a potenciais efeitos da exposição a nanopartículas sobre a saúde ocupacional, existe necessidade de orientação para os gestores a respeito dos riscos, perigos e dos possíveis controles. A identificação de questões éticas envolvidas é útil, particularmente para empregadores, empregados, investidores e autoridades de saúde, uma vez que o sentido e a meta da segurança ocupacional e de saúde é a prevenção de doenças para os trabalhadores. Essa situação inclui: (a) identificação e comunicação de riscos por cientistas, autoridades e empregadores; (b) aceitação dos riscos por parte dos trabalhadores; (c) seleção e implementação de controles; (d) estabelecimento de programas de detecção precoce; e (e) investimento em toxicologia e pesquisas de vigilância. A questão ética envolve determinação imparcial de riscos, não maleficência, autonomia, justiça, privacidade e promoção do respeito às pessoas. Identificadas e exploradas as questões éticas, várias opções se abrem ao gestor. Adicionalmente, deliberações societais acerca dos riscos no local de trabalho com nanotecnologia podem fundamentar a escolha por pequenos negócios dentro de uma perspectiva global.

In the absence of scientific clarity about the potential health effects of occupational exposure to nanoparticles, a need exists for guidance in decisionmaking about hazards, risks, and controls. An identification of the ethical issues involved may be useful to decision makers, particularly employers, workers, investors, and health authorities. Because the goal of occupational safety and health is the prevention of disease in workers, the situations that have ethical implications that most affect workers have been identified. These situations include the a) identification and communication of hazards and risks by scientists, authorities, and employers; b) workers' acceptance of risk; c) selection and implementation of controls; d) establishment of medical screening programs; and e) investment in toxicologic and control research. The ethical issues involve the unbiased determination of hazards and risks, nonmaleficence (doing no harm), autonomy, justice, privacy, and promoting respect for persons. As the ethical issues are identified and explored, options for decision makers can be developed. Additionally, societal deliberations about workplace risks of nanotechnologies may be enhanced by special emphasis on small businesses and adoption of a global perspective.